Leif Erikson's Voyage to North America

Leif Erikson, an explorer from Greenland, ventured into an unknown land called Vinland in approximately 1000 C.E. The Viking writings known as the Vinland Sagas, or stories of legend and history, contain evidence to suggest that Leif may have been the first European to set foot in North America. Archaeological evidence from the time period suggests that people from Greenland and Iceland may have settled briefly in Newfoundland, Canada. Archaeological evidence and the Vinland Sagas are used to support the theory that Leif Erikson’s journey to North America took place.

            Leif Erikson’s discovery is one of many theories as to who was the first to discover North America. Many artifacts and discoveries have been falsified over time in attempts for their founders to gain fame or prove that Vikings visited North America.[1] There are also theories that would suggest that Vikings ventured farther south along the coast of the modern day United States. Leif’s journey is one that is often controversial, especially since Christopher Columbus is widely acknowledged as the discoverer of the New World. Evidence of Viking presence in areas of Canada have been discovered and suggest their presence occurred several centuries before Columbus prepared for his voyage to India.[2] Artifacts and the Vinland Sagas may help to verify the stories of Leif Erikson’s journey to North America.

            The Vinland Sagas are two of the Icelandic sagas that were recorded by Vikings on what is thought to be the first discovery of North America. These sagas are known as The Saga of the Greenlanders and The Saga of Erik the Red. The Vinland Sagas present information that is similar and different from the other, which can be used to discern facts from the events that led up to, during, and after the discovery of North America by Leif Erikson. Both of the Sagas begin with details of Leif Erikson’s parentage, and they provide information that is vital to understanding the events that unfolded. [3]

The story of discovery begins first with Erik Thorvaldsson, known as Erik the Red.[4] Erik and his father, Thorvald Asvaldsson, traveled from Norway to Iceland.[5] In Iceland, Erik the Red married Thjodhild, who would later father him several sons and a daughter; Leif Erikson was one of those sons. After events unfolded in Iceland over a blood feud, Erik the Red was exiled from Iceland.[6] Erik left Iceland and soon afterwards discovered a new land, which he named Greenland. Erik brought his family to Greenland afterwards and they settled in an area called Brattahlid.[7]

Leif Erikson grew up in Greenland and followed in his father’s footsteps as the adventurous type. Leif is described as a large muscular man who was very handsome.[8] He was said to be a kind and calm man.[9] Leif visited King Olaf Tryggvason of Norway and converted to Christianity during his stay.[10] The king sent Leif back to Greenland in the hopes of converting more of the settlers to Christianity.[11]

            Following Leif’s visit to Norway the sagas begin to differ on the accounts of the journey to North America. The Saga of Erik the Red claims that on the voyage back to Greenland from Norway, Leif’s ship was caught in a storm and when the storm had passed they found themselves near a new land.[12] Afterwards, Leif and his crew made way to explore the land. The saga provides details of a land full of wheat fields, grape vines, and maple trees.[13] Leif and his men gathered the resources that they discovered and transported them back to Greenland.

            Leif and his men encountered indigenous people before making their journey home. The Saga of Erik the Red noted that the indigenous people were shipwrecked, so Leif offered them a place to stay over the winter.[14] When the weather was warmer, Leif and his men returned to Greenland with stories of a new land.[15] Plans were made afterwards for more expeditions to the land that Leif had discovered, one of which was reported to be headed by another explorer Thorfinn Karlsefni.[16]

The Saga of the Greenlanders describes that the first sighting of North America occurred by another man, Bjarni Herjólfsson. According to Birgitta Wallace in The Norse in Newfoundland, Bjarni’s ship was thrown off course by a storm, when travelling to Greenland.[17] Several days later, Bjarni and his crew spotted land. Bjarni was afraid to encounter any more storms and quickly traveled north to Greenland instead of venturing towards land.[18] After they reached Greenland, news travelled of the new land that they had seen and caught the attention of Leif Erikson.

Leif Erikson made preparations for a journey to the land that Bjarni had seen, and soon set sail. Leif stopped several times on islands, which they had suspected was the mysterious new land. Leif named these places Helluland and Markland.[19] Eventually, Leif and his men went on shore to another land where sweet dew clung to grass.[20] After, they decided to explore the land and sailed the ship into a lake. Leif and his men took their supplies on shore and built booths, or small temporary shelters, until they were able to build permanent structures for winter.[21]

When they were settled into their new houses they were able to explore and observe their surroundings. Grœnlendinga saga explained that the food was plentiful, winter was mild, and daylight lasted longer than it had at their homeland.[22] After grapes were discovered Leif named the land Vinland, possibly for the grape vines or wine made from grapes.[23] They loaded their ship with grapes and wood, and then sailed home to Brattahlid, Greenland.

There are many similarities and differences between the two sagas and their explanations of the expedition to Vinland. The Saga of the Greenlanders gives the credit of the first sighting of North America to Bjarni, while The Saga of Erik the Red gives credit to Leif Erikson.[24] Both sagas suggest that a storm contributed to each of these men being pushed off of course to discover the new land. In regards to Leif’s journey to Vinland, The Saga of the Greenlanders suggests that after Leif heard of Bjarni’s sighting and made plans to journey to the new land, while The Saga of Erik the Red suggests it was an accidental find by Leif.[25]

While, The Saga of the Greenlanders provides more detail about Leif’s expeditions, both of the sagas contain some of the same information. Both sagas mention the same people such as: Erik the Red, Leif Erikson, and Leif’s siblings.[26] Both sagas confirm encounters with indigenous people in Vinland, which are referred to as skrælings.[27] Einar Haugen in Voyages to Vinland suggested that the indigenous people could have been Eskimos.[28] There is some dispute on the issue of the indigenous people, because in The Saga of Erik the Red the skrælings were peaceful, while in The Saga of the Greenlanders they were warriors.[29]

The similarities and differences between the sagas can be used to either prove that the expedition took place or disprove it. Richard Perkins in The Verses in Eric the Red’s Saga and Again stated that the sagas were considered good sources at one point, but the outlook on the fact that they provide has diminished since the beginning of the twentieth century.[30] The description of the land also helps to support the theory of the discovery of North America by Leif Erikson. The trustworthiness of the sagas can also be supported by physical evidence of the settlement in Vinland.

In 1960, an explorer named Helge Ingstad discovered an eleventh century Norse settlement in Newfoundland, Canada.[31] In Is L’Anse aux Meadows Vinland it is reported that the site of L’Anse aux Meadows was likely the northern entrance into the country that the Vikings called Vinland.[32] Vinland extended to the area of New Brunswick in modern day Quebec, Canada. Evidence within the site suggests it was of Norse origin and that expeditions in the land would have extended farther south into the Gulf of Saint Lawrence.[33]

Helge Ingstad and his wife, Anne Stine Ingstad, led a team of international archaeologists during an excavation of the L’Anse aux Meadows site following its discovery.[34] Between 1973 and 1976, further excavations were done on the surroundings of the site.[35] The structures and artifacts that were discovered are similar to those found in Greenland and Iceland during the period of Leif’s existence. The radiocarbon dating of substances and artifacts provided a wide range of dates, but indicate dating from around the time that Leif Erikson would have explored Vinland.[36]

There were several structures that were excavated during the Ingstad’s excavation. These included dwellings, workshops, and a forge.[37] The construction style of the buildings matched those used in Leif’s home country. One indication of Viking origin is the fireplace situated in the center of the buildings, which was a typical characteristic of Norse construction.[38] The halls were also constructed to house large amounts of people, and would have contained enough room to sleep the amount of people that accompanied Leif.[39]

There are many different archaeological artifacts found within the dwellings that support the idea of a Norse settlement. An item such as a pin for fastening cloaks was discovered and represents the style used by Norsemen during the time period.[40] Items that would have been included in a woman’s textile kit were found scattered among several buildings. These items include a spindle whorl, flywheel, whetstone, and bone needle.[41] While, there was no mention of women accompanying Leif’s expedition in the Vinland Sagas, it is still possible that women were present.

Inside the furnace structure there is evidence of metallurgy at the forge. In Discovery of the Site and Initial Excavations it is observed that, “a great deal of slag from smelting and working of iron was also found on the site together with a large number of iron boat nails and rivets.”[42] These items indicate Norse metal working, especially the presence of iron boat nails which were commonly used in Viking ships. Other artifacts indicate exploration of the surrounding land around the site.

The presences of some of the artifacts indicate that the settlers at the L’Anse aux Meadows site traveled farther south. Pieces of butternuts and grapes suggest that the settlers ventured into the area of New Brunswick.[43] The climate around L’Anse aux Meadows would now allow for butternuts or grapes to grow, but in area of New Brunswick and farther south they grow abundantly.[44] This may indicate that the site was one of several; the explorers may have traveled farther south and brought supplies to the L’Anse aux Meadows site afterwards.

In a bog near the buildings at the L’Anse aux Meadows site more evidence of Viking presence is discovered. After an excavation of the area wood trimmings were excavated. In Excavations by Parks Canada it is implied that the trimmings were produced by the use of metal tools to shape lumber.[45] These findings would support the idea that wood was transported back to Greenland following the exploration of Vinland.

The L’Anse aux Meadows site contains evidence that would suggest that there was active for a short period of time. Radiocarbon dating suggests that some of the artifacts have date ranges which may fall for a longer period of time after the suspected abandonment of the site and into the later eleventh century.[46] The general consensus is that the Vikings did not maintain regular visits to Vinland after only a few expeditions, the Vinland Sagas would support this theory. The cold weather during winters and frozen waters would have made regular travel to and from Vinland difficult. The resources found in Vinland were highly sought after, but not necessary for Viking survival in Greenland or Iceland. Therefore, the site was probably abandoned and travel to the site stopped.

After the discovery of L’Anse aux Meadows many archaeologists sought more proof of Viking existence in North America. Archaeologist Patricia Sutherland found evidence of Viking presence on Baffin Island, to the north of Newfoundland.[47] Sutherland went through artifacts found previously and discovered that many had been overlooked; the artifacts indicated a Viking presence on the island and nearby areas.[48] All of the artifacts help to support the idea of Viking exploration farther to the west of Greenland.

The many artifacts that were discovered by Sutherland and others before her indicate that Vikings may have visited the island for brief times and traded with the indigenous people. These items include whetstones, yarn, items used to record trade, and so on.[49] Several of the indigenous sites that had been excavated included items that may have been acquired by trade with Vikings.[50] These artifacts can also help to support the story of Leif’s journey recorded in The Saga of the Greenlanders.

The presence of Viking artifacts may indicate that the island was one of the stops that Leif made when searching for the new land sighted by Bjarni. Heather Pringle in Evidence of Viking Outpost Found in Canada argued that Baffin Island may be the location that Leif named Helluland.[51] Radiocarbon dating suggests that some of the artifacts had been on the island long before Leif’s expedition.[52] It is possible that locations on Baffin Island became a place where Vikings visited, or even briefly settled, before Leif discovered Vinland.

Despite the differences in the sagas many facts can be seen through the similarities in the two stories. Both provide information of items that would have been found warmer climates. The presence of longer days would indicate a more southern location where days and nights were more equal. The description of the journey, lands, and indigenous people may farther indicate exploration of areas in northeastern Canada.

Archaeological evidence found in the site of L’Anse aux Meadows is undeniably of Norse origin, with radiocarbon dating to support the time of settlement. Artifacts that were found within and around the site also indicate the presence of Vikings. The structures that had been constructed also indicate that they are similar to those found in Greenland and Iceland during the time of Leif’s existence. It is possible that this was only one settlement used in the area following the time of Leif’s discovery of Vinland.

The items found on Baffin Island also help to support the idea that Vikings may have traveled west of Greenland, even before Leif’s journey occurred. The artifacts indicate that Vikings may have visited the island. The presence of Viking artifacts in several indigenous sites also suggest that trading may have occurred between the two peoples. The artifacts may also support the idea that Baffin Island may have been the land Leif called Helluland.

            The sagas in combination with the archaeological evidence seem to verify the Leif Erikson may have been the one to first explore the land known as Vinland. The similarities between the two Vinland Sagas would suggest that Leif’s journey to a new land did occur. While there are many theories as to who first discovered North America, archaeological evidence and radiocarbon dating help to support the theory that Vikings ventured to North America long before other Europeans.

ENDNOTES

---

[1] Heather Pringle, “Evidence of Viking Outpost Found in Canada,” National Geographic, last modified October 19, 2012, http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2012/10/121019-viking-outpost-second-new-canada-science-sutherland/?rptregcta=reg_free_np&rptregcampaign=20131016_rw_membership_r1p_us_dr_w#

[2] “A Saga of Discovery,” Parks Canada, last modified October 10, 2012, http://www.pc.gc.ca/eng/lhn-nhs/nl/meadows/natcul/saga.aspx

 [3] Richard Perkins, “The Verses in Eric the Red’s Saga and Again: Norse Visits to America,” Viking Society Web Publications, 3-4, accessed April 16, 2014, http://www.vsnrweb-publications.org.uk/Perkins.pdf

[4] Birgitta Wallace, “The Norse in Newfoundland: L’Anse aux Meadows and Vinland,” Electronic Text Centre Journals, 6, accessed April 16, 2014, http://journals.hil.unb.ca/index.php/NFLDS/article/viewFile/140/237

[5] Thomas F. Bertonneau, “The Vinland Voyages, The Market, and Mortality: The Greenlanders’ Saga and Eirik’s Saga in Context,” The Brussels Journal, last modified September 25, 2010, http://www.brusselsjournal.com/node/4541

[6] Wallace, “The Norse in Newfoundland,” 6.

[7] Einar Haugen, Voyages to Vinland: The First American Saga. (New York: Knopf, 1924), 12, https://archive.org/stream/voyagestovinland013593mbp#page/n11/mode/2up

[8] Ibid., 21.

[9] Ibid., 21.

[10] William Alexander Craigie, The Icelandic Sagas (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1913), 57, https://archive.org/details/icelandicsagas00craigoog

[11] Haugen, Voyages to Vinland, 13.

[12] “The Saga of Erik the Red,” trans. J. Sephton, Icelandic Saga Database,  accessed April 17, 2014, http://sagadb.org/eiriks_saga_rauda.en

[13] Ibid.

[14] Ibid.

[15] Ibid.

[16] Craigie, The Icelandic Sagas, 57.

[17] Wallace, “The Norse in Newfoundland,” 8.

[18] Ibid., 8.

[19] Bertonneau, “The Vinland Voyages.”

[20] “Grœnlendinga saga - The Saga of the Greenlanders,” Archive.is, accessed April 16, 2014, https://notendur.hi.is//~haukurth/utgafa/greenlanders.html

[21] Ibid.

[22] Ibid.

[23] Ibid.

[24] Haugen, Voyages to Vinland, 113.

[25] Ibid, 113-114.

[26] Perkins, “The Verses in Eric the Red’s Saga and Again,” 3-4.

[27] Ibid., 4.

[28] Haugen, Voyages to Vinland, 144.

[29] Ibid., 144.

[30] Perkins, “The Verses in Eric the Red’s Saga and Again,” 4.

[31] “Discovery of the Site and Initial Excavations (1960–1968),” Parks Canada, last modified October 10, 2012, http://www.pc.gc.ca/eng/lhn-nhs/nl/meadows/natcul/decouverte_discovery.aspx

[32] “Is L’Anse aux Meadows Vinland?” Parks Canada, last modified October 10, 2012, http://www.pc.gc.ca/eng/lhn-nhs/nl/meadows/natcul/vinland.aspx

[33] Perkins, “The Verses in Eric the Red’s Saga and Again,” 27.

[34] “Discovery of the Site,” Parks Canada.

[35] “Excavation by Parks Canada (1973–1976),” Parks Canada, last modified October 10, 2012, http://www.pc.gc.ca/eng/lhn-nhs/nl/meadows/natcul/fouilles_excavate.aspx

[36] Thomas H McGovern. “The Archaeology of the Norse North Atlantic.”  Annual Review of Anthropology 19 (1990): 343. JSTOR.

[37] “Excavations by Parks Canada (1973-1976),” Parks Canada.

[38] “Discovery of the Site,” Parks Canada.

[39] Wallace, “The Norse in Newfoundland,” 24.

[40] “Discovery of the Site,” Parks Canada.

[41] Ibid.

[42] Ibid.

[43] “Is L’Anse aux Meadows Vinland?” Parks Canada.

[44] Ibid.

[45] “Excavations by Parks Canada (1973-1976),” Parks Canada.

[46] Wallace, “The Norse in Newfoundland,” 22.

[47]  Pringle, “Evidence of Viking Outpost Found in Canada.”

[48] Ibid.

[49] Ibid.

[50] Ibid.

[51] Ibid.

[52] Ibid.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

“A Saga of Discovery.” Parks Canada. Last modified October 10, 2012. http://www.pc.gc.ca/eng/lhn-nhs/nl/meadows/natcul/saga.aspx

Bertonneau, Thomas F. “The Vinland Voyages, The Market, and Mortality: The Greenlanders’ Saga and Eirik’s Saga in Context.” The Brussels Journal. Last modified September 25, 2010. http://www.brusselsjournal.com/node/4541

Craigie, William Alexander. The Icelandic Sagas. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1913. https://archive.org/details/icelandicsagas00craigoog

“Discovery of the Site and Initial Excavations (1960–1968).” Parks Canada. Last modified October 10, 2012. http://www.pc.gc.ca/eng/lhn-nhs/nl/meadows/natcul/decouverte_discovery.aspx

“Excavation by Parks Canada (1973–1976.” Parks Canada. Last modified October 10, 2012. http://www.pc.gc.ca/eng/lhn-nhs/nl/meadows/natcul/fouilles_excavate.aspx

“Grœnlendinga saga - The Saga of the Greenlanders.” Archive.is. Accessed April 16, 2014. https://notendur.hi.is//~haukurth/utgafa/greenlanders.html

Haugen, Einar. Voyages to Vinland: The First American Saga. New York: Knopf, 1924. https://archive.org/stream/voyagestovinland013593mbp#page/n11/mode/2up

“Is L’Anse aux Meadows Vinland?” Parks Canada. Last modified October 10, 2012. http://www.pc.gc.ca/eng/lhn-nhs/nl/meadows/natcul/vinland.aspx

McGovern, Thomas H. “The Archaeology of the Norse North Atlantic.”  Annual Review of Anthropology 19 (1990): 331-351. JSTOR.

Perkins, Richard. “The Verses in Eric the Red’s Saga and Again: Norse Visits to America.” Viking Society Web Publications. Accessed April 16, 2014. http://www.vsnrweb-publications.org.uk/Perkins.pdf

Pringle, Heather. “Evidence of Viking Outpost Found in Canada.” National Geographic. Last modified October 19, 2012. http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2012/10/121019-viking-outpost-second-new-canada-science-sutherland/?rptregcta=reg_free_np&rptregcampaign=20131016_rw_membership_r1p_us_dr_w#

“The Saga of Erik the Red.” Translated by J. Sephton. Icelandic Saga Database. Accessed April 17, 2014. http://sagadb.org/eiriks_saga_rauda.en

Wallace, Birgitta. “The Norse in Newfoundland: L’Anse aux Meadows and Vinland.” Electronic Text Centre Journals. Accessed April 16, 2014. http://journals.hil.unb.ca/index.php/NFLDS/article/viewFile/140/237

**Check out some educational flashcards on Leif Erikson at ExamTime.com.**