The Neolithic Era occurred between
the Mesolithic Era and the Bronze Age, sometime between 10,000 BCE and 2,000
BCE. The Neolithic Era is also referred to as the New Stone Age. The Neolithic
Era brought with it changes in the way man lived, worked, and participated in
society. The Neolithic people began as farmers, raising livestock, building
settlements, and using tools.
The changes that occurred in the
lives of the people in Neolithic Ireland created a chain reaction. John Waddell
in The Prehistoric Archaeology of Ireland
added that farmers may have immigrated into Ireland and brought with them plant
and animal species, as well as tomb building rituals.[1]
These tombs became some of the most prominent Neolithic structures found across
Ireland and other parts of Europe. The structures are known as megaliths and
provide insight into the lives of the Neolithic people.
Megaliths were created with large
standing stones and some of these individual stones that make up a megalithic
structure weigh several tons to a hundred tons. There are several different
types of megalithic monuments; some of the most magnificent are the burial
tombs. Sean O Nuallain in The Megalithic Tombs
of Ireland explained that there are approximately 1,200 megalithic tombs in
Ireland that are categorized into four groups: the passage tomb, court tomb,
portal tomb, and wedge tomb.[2]
Each tomb provides unique archaeological evidence and architecture.
Passage tombs contain some of the
largest groupings of tombs, also referred to as cemeteries. Passages are often
decorated with geometric artwork carved into stones both inside and on the outside
structure of the megaliths. Sean O Nuallain pointed out that the shapes may be
shaped like eyes as a representation of people.[3]
The tomb art may provide insight into Neolithic burial rituals, but the purpose
is unknown.
The passage tombs are often situated
on the top of cleared hills. John Waddell described the architectural characteristics
of a passage tomb:
A typical Irish passage tomb
consists of a chamber approached by a passage, both covered by a characteristic circular mound. The mounds may be built
of earth or stone or a mixture of
both and they usually have a curb [sic] or retaining base….Passages are narrow and built of upright
(orthostats) and roofed in whole or in part with flat slabs (lintels); on occasion passages are divided
into segments by one or more low transverse slabs
set on edge in the floor (sill stones).[4]
Perhaps, the structures were built
for seasonal, or calendar, ritual practices since the structures often face in
certain directions. The tomb at Newgrange, in County Meath, faces the east and
could indicate that it was constructed for calendar rituals. Waddell believed
that on the morning sun on the midwinter solstice would shine into the roof-box
and light up the chamber; previously it may have aligned to shine on some of
the geometric artwork.[5]
The significance of the architectural design and any ritual practice is unknown.
Excavations of the passage tombs give
many pieces of archaeological evidence. Radiocarbon dating of the artifacts and
human remains yield different results at different locations and give the
estimated time of construction and use between the late fifth and late third
millennium BCE. Paola Arosio and Diego Meozzi in Stones of Ireland confirmed that evidence during a 1935 CE excavation,
at a tomb in Carrowkeel in County Sling, contained a chalk ball, pottery,
arrowheads, scrapers, and an axe head.[6]
The evidence from other locations consists of a variety of objects such as
cremated remains, bones, and personal mementos.
The evidence discovered at several
different passage tombs provide an insight into the possible ritual uses of the
tombs. The depositions of chalk balls indicate that the tombs may have been
used for other purposes, including fertility rituals.[7]
Waddell commented that there may have been a pattern to how the human remains
were treated during the funerary process; adults were more often cremated,
while the bones of children often remained intact.[8]
The evidence of animal bones at Fourknocks, in County Meath, may also suggest
that burial feasts may have occurred at some location.[9]
The archaeological evidence found provide
clues that imply that the passage tomb builders came from settled communities.
Nuallain claimed that the presence of wheat and pollen suggested that the land
around Carrowkeel may have been cleared and use as farm land.[10]
The presence of grains would indicate that if the land had been cleared and
agriculture was a means of producing food that the farmers most likely remained
settled in the immediate area. The evidence the burial feast also suggests that
the animal were domesticated, which supports the idea of a settled community
for stock breeding.
There is an opposing view point to
the theory of the settled Neolithic community. Waddell wrote that Goran
Burenhult, a prehistory author, believed that the evidence of seafood located
farther inland and the lack of pottery at certain sites supports the theory of
a hunter-gatherer society.[11]
Radiocarbon dating suggested that the passage tombs began in the late fifth millennium.
Therefore, it is possible that the passage tomb builders had originally been a
hunter-gatherer society and later developed into an agricultural society as it
progressed towards the second millennium. The passage tomb cemeteries would
also support this theory by indicating that new funerary rituals were
continuously performed in these locations.
Court tombs, similarly to the
passage tomb, are some of the larger more elaborately constructed megalithic
burial tombs and are often situated on hilltops. There are estimates that
suggest that there are over three hundred court tombs in Ireland. Julian Thomas
in the article Monuments from the Inside
emphasized that the elaborate construction of the court tomb may indicate a
division and stronger focus on ritualized practices, than on other activities
outside of the tombs.[12]
The court tombs have not withstood the effects of time as well as the passage
tombs, and evidence is often difficult to find.
The court tombs are also some of the
largest megalithic tombs constructed. The construction of the court tombs
contains many distinct features. Waddell acknowledged, “the characteristic
features in the ceremonial courtyard, set in front of a gallery [burial vault]
which is divided by jabs [stone side pieces] into two or more chambers….Courts
vary considerably in shape: completely enclosed forms of oval or circular
outline, are dominate in western coastal districts while U-shaped or more
shallow courts are normal elsewhere.”[13] These sites provide archaeological evidence
of ritual practice and clues about the social structure of the builders.
The excavations of several court
tombs provide pieces of information about the court tomb builders. The evidence
discovered has been of material goods more so than of human remains. Nuallain
wrote that objects such as arrowheads, javelin heads, scrapers, axes, knives,
and polished stone have been identified.[14]
Radiocarbon dating, from pieces of archaeological evidence at various locations
dates, places the construction and use of the court burial tombs between the
mid fourth millennium to the end of the second millennium BCE.
Several pieces of archaeological
evidence provide details into different forms of funerary rituals. These forms
of funerary rituals include cremation, burial, and mass graves. Jim Dempsey in Megaliths reported that at the court
tomb in Ballymacaldrack, in County Antrim, and an excavation showed that
cremation occurred in the tomb as well as the deposition of the bones.[15]
Information provided at other locations suggests different funerary rituals
were performed.
Evidence present at the Creggandevesky
court tomb, in County Tyrone, gave an indication of both mass burial and
funerary ritual. Waddell suggested that there is proof that twenty-one people
were cremated and that bone fragments suggest they were possibly crushed after
being scorched during a ritual.[16]
Waddell also wrote that Humphrey Chase believed that the some of the pottery
fragments may have been used as part of magic fertility rituals.[17]
The evidence available produces more than just clues into the ritual practices
of the megalith builders.
Like the passage tomb builders, the
court tomb builders were most likely agricultural farming communities. Animal
bones and evidence of grain in pottery may indicate a settled community just as
in the case of the passage tombs.[18]
The location of the tomb on the hilltops
also supports the idea of land clearing, similar to that of the passage tomb. All
of these point to the theory of a settled farming community within the
immediate area of the court tombs. The court tombs, however, may have provided
more than just a funerary purpose.
The location of the court tombs and
the elaborate skill it had taken to build these megaliths indicate more than a
ritual for funerary purposes. T. C. Darvill in Court
Cairns, Passage Graves and Social Changes in Ireland
insisted that the court tomb builders may have even participated in certain
trades such as creating weapons with flint, producing pottery and a focus on
building megalithic structures.[19]
It is possible that these court tombs may have not only served as the community
political and economic center as well.[20]
The theory of the court tombs being used as a location for other religious
rites such as the magic fertility rituals and evidence of many sharp objects,
that would have been used as tools, help to support the idea of its use as a
market. These suggest a cultural change and advancement in other techniques.
The
portal tombs were not constructed like the court and passage tombs. They are
also often located in valleys, as opposed to along the tops or sides of hills
like the court and passage tombs. Waddell observed that the locations of the
portal tombs may indicate that they were placed in valleys and wooded areas
because of the proximity to wood and visible protection.[21]
Wood, however, was not used in the construction of the portal tomb, as it had
been in certain cases with the court tombs’ roofing.
The
portal tomb’s construction was no easy feat for its builders to undertake. The
builders have used man and animal power as well as leverage or a pulley system
in order to stand or lift some of the heavier stone. Sean O Nuallain noted the
characteristics of the portal tomb:
In
such tombs, a pair of tall, well matched jambs flans the entrance and between
these is often a door stone which
frequently achieves full closure…. Poised above the entrance is the heaver end of the single great roof
stone which usually covers the chamber. … Especially
massive roof stones are characteristic. The roof stone slopes downwards from the entrance and rests on a low back
stone.[22]
The
objects found during excavations at different sites provide more insight into
the funerary rituals than at any other megalithic tomb. At the portal tomb
known as Poulnabrone, in County Clare, evidence suggests that elaborate rituals
were performed. Colm Moriarty in Poulnabrone
Tomb argued that the flesh was first removed and the bones were later place
in the portal tombs after having gone through a purification ritual with the
use of fire.[23]
This theory implies that the process was lengthier than immediate.
Poulnabrone
produces other archaeological evidence that indicates possible violence between
members of the portal tomb community members or skirmishes with other Neolithic
communities. According to Waddell a piece of flint was found embedded in a hip
bone and a skull was discovered with two fractures cause by aggressive blows.[24] Aggression
or sign of skirmishes could have been the result of harder times for the portal
tomb builders. Analysis of the bones that had been deposited in the site suggests
more physical labor, malnutrition, and infections.[25]
Radiocarbon dating provides information that the portal tombs were built and
used between the early fourth and late second millennium BCE.
The
last of the Neolithic Era tombs to be constructed were the wedge tombs. Radio
carbon dating suggests that the tombs were constructed and used between the
early third to late first millennium BCE. The location of the wedge tomb is not
unlike the passage and court tombs tombs and is usually situated on farm lands
and hills. William Gerrard Ryan in A
Survey of Monuments of Archaeology and Historical Interest in the Barony of
Bunratty Lower, Co. Clare agreed that the wedge tombs are often found on
the hills of fertile and well drained farmlands.[26]
The features of a wedge tomb are difficult to mistake, because of the large
stones used during construction.
The
wedge tomb was named for its distinct wedge shape. Nuallain described that,
“the chambers form a long, relatively narrow gallery which decreases in height
and width from front to rear. The front consistently faces in a general
southwesterly direction….The roof is formed of slabs laid directly on the
chamber orthostats.”[27]
The wedge tomb was most likely constructed in a similar way to that of the
portal tomb, through a series of leverage and pulley systems as well as with
the strength of man and animals. The wedge tombs were also likely constructed
for calendar ritual practices.
Some
of the wedge tombs were constructed similar to the other tomb types. The
structures, especially two in County Cork, face in a southwest direction. It is
possible that the structure was constructed to be face the sunset during the Gaelic
harvest festival known as Samhain.[28]
This may indicate that the tombs were constructed for more than just funerary
rites, but also in calendar festivals or rituals making them religious centers.
The
wedge tomb builders were able to construct more goods as a result of the use of
metals during the early Bronze Age. This cultural change allowed the tomb
builder communities to create more elaborate products. According to Paola Arosio and Diego Meozzi a
gold necklace, called the Gleninsheen Collar was discovered in 1932 near the
Gleninsheen wedge tomb, in County Clare.[29]
Other wedge tomb locations have provided evidence of advanced trades with such
as the Beaker ware pottery and tanged and barbed arrowheads.[30]
These changes indicate advancement in metallurgy and technology.
There
are multiple opinions on the exact purpose of the megalithic tombs, other than
for funerary rituals. There are also many theories as to what the
archaeological evidence suggests about the religious and cultural practices of
the megalithic tomb builders. Waddell gave one more speculation as to the
purpose of burial tombs; he believed that the megalithic monuments could have
also been a way to signify territorial boundaries or land ownership of
farmlands in the same way a person today would build a home or other structure
on a property that they own.[32]
The megalithic structures and archaeological evidence only provide pieces of a
puzzle that may never be solved.
The
four distinct forms of megalithic burial tombs have provided evidence to
suggest that the people of the Neolithic Era in Ireland had changed in several
ways. The tombs began as places primarily for funerary ritual in the early
Neolithic Era. The Neolithic culture progressed as it approached the Bronze Age
and with it came changes to the architectural design of the megalithic tombs
and their uses. The megalithic tombs may have been used for other religious
rituals as well as for social and economic purposes.
The
locations of the megalithic tombs indicate what type of societies had
constructed them. It is suggested the builders of the passage tomb may have
originally been a hunter-gatherer society that eventually settled in the area
of the megaliths and developed a society based on agriculture. The three other
tomb types were constructed by mainly agricultural societies due to land
clearing and the presence of grains. It is possible, however, that the builders
of the wedge tomb may have focused primarily on livestock as opposed to
planting crops.[33]
The
Neolithic builders created four megalithic tombs: the passage tomb, the court
tomb, the portal tomb, and the wedge tomb. The builders created these tombs for
funerary rituals, but the sites may have had many other religious and cultural
purposes. Excavations of the different sites provided many archaeological artifacts.
Studying the megalithic architecture and the archaeological evidence indicates
that the tombs were of religious, cultural, and economic importance throughout
the time of the Irish Neolithic societies.
[1] John Waddell, The Prehistoric Archaeology of Ireland
(1998; Galway University Press, 2005), 25,
http://hdl.handle.net/10379/1357
[2] Sean O
Nuallain, “The Megalithic Tombs of Ireland: Neolithic Tombs and Their Art,” Expedition, 1979, 7, http://www.penn.museum/documents/publications/expedition/PDFs/21-3/Nuallain.pdf
[3] Ibid., 10.
[4] Waddell, The Prehistoric Archaeology of Ireland,
57-58.
[5] Ibid., 61.
[6] Paola Arosio
and Diego Meozzi, “Stones of Ireland,” Stone Pages, accessed February 6, 2014.
http://www.stonepages.com/ireland/ireland.html
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Arosio,
Paola, and Diego Meozzi. “Stones of Ireland.” Stone Pages. Accessed February 6,
2014. http://www.stonepages.com/ireland/ireland.html
Darvill,
T. C. “Court Cairns, Passage Graves and Social Changes in Ireland.” Man 14, no.2 (1979): 311-327. JSTOR.
Accessed February 18, 2014. http://www.jstor.org/stable/2801570
Dempsey,
Jim. “Megaliths.” Megalithic Ireland. Last modified January 26, 2013. http://www.megalithicireland.com/
Moriarty,
Colm. “Poulnabrone Tomb: Life and Death in the Burren.” Irish Archaeology. Last
modified June 19, 2013. http://irisharchaeology.ie/2013/06/poulnabrone-tomb-life-and-death-in-the-burren/
Nuallain,
Sean O. “The Megalithic Tombs of Ireland: Neolithic Tombs and Their Art.” Expedition, 1979. http://www.penn.museum/documents/publications/expedition/PDFs/21-3/Nuallain.pdf
Ryan,
William Gerrard. “A Survey of Monuments of Archaeology and Historical Interest
in the Barony of Bunratty Lower, Co. Clare.” Clare County Library. Accessed February
19, 2014. http://www.clarelibrary.ie/eolas/coclare/archaeology/ryan/index.htm
Thomas,
Julian. “Monuments from the Inside: The Case of the Irish Megalithic Tombs.” World Archaeology 22, no. 2 (1990):
168-178. JSTOR. Accessed February 18, 2014. http://www.jstor.org/stable/124874
Waddell,
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